Not too rigid

The use of “that” and “which” as relative pronouns, or pronouns referring to nouns that have gone before, is distinct, as we have seen.

It helps reduce confusion if we keep the distinction in mind. It might surprise us that native users of the language do not bother too much about all this, and consciousness about the specific uses of “that” and “which” is fairly recent.

For example, the King James Bible (earliest version: 1611) has “Render unto Caesar the things which are Caesar’s; and unto God the things that are God’s”. It doesn’t sound wrong, does it? Elsewhere the same statement has which in both places, and that in both places a second time. Try them out, they still sound right.

Obviously, grammar rules are one thing, and usage is another. The trick is to know what is incorrect. “That” is often used in short sentences or early in the sentence in long ones. For example, “The house that I built” or “The crow that sang was kept carefully in a golden cage by the princess.” The British often show a preference for “which”: “It has outlined two broad strategies which it thinks could be put to the institutions” (The Times). Strictly speaking, “that” would be correct here.

The way out of the confusion is to stick to the rule for defining and non-defining clauses. Although “which” is used for defining clauses, it is better to avoid it.

Besides, non-defining clauses must be set off with commas, and defining clauses, even when using “which”, must not.

Which of the following sentences is correct? Why?

The Suez Canal, which was opened in 1869, has been a source of much trouble.

The Suez Canal, that was opened in 1869, has been a source….

The Suez Canal which was opened in 1869 has been a source…

The Suez Canal that was opened in 1869 has been a source…

Don’t drop that

It is often considered smart to throw out “that” altogether, not only in a relative clause, but in other positions as well. As in “The topic I want to consider”. This is fine, but we can’t always leave “that” unexpressed. If we were to make lists, they would go something like this:

a) The verbs agree, assert, assume, aver, calculate, conceive, hold, learn, maintain, reckon, state, suggest would like to have a “that” after them. For example, “I agree that the meeting must be held”, rather than “I agree the meeting must be held”. Note that these are fairly formal verbs. Also “that” is expressed to avoid confusion. “I still hold that you are wrong” makes sense, not “I still hold you are wrong”.

b)“That” is unusual with believe, presume, suppose, think.

c) “That” can be used or omitted according to tone and context with the verbs be told, confess, consider, declare, grant, hear, know, perceive, propose, say, see, understand. These are not all the verbs, but enough for the general idea. And that’s enough of that, for the moment.