In Annihilation of Caste, B.R. Ambedkar argued that inter-caste marriage is essential for dismantling the caste system. “The real remedy,” Ambedkar writes, “for breaking caste is inter-marriage. Nothing else will serve as the solvent of caste.” The sociologist, M.N. Srinivas, also observed that caste endogamy is a major mechanism for perpetuating caste (Caste in Modern India and Other Essays). Despite legal protections, such as the Special Marriage Act, 1954, as well as initiatives such as the Ambedkar Scheme for Social Integration through Inter-Caste Marriages, under which an incentive of Rs 2.50 lakh is provided for a legal inter-caste marriage, inter-caste unions remain rare. A 2011 survey by the National Council of Applied Economic Research had found that only about 5% of Indian marriages are inter-caste, reflecting deep-rooted social resistance.
In Sexuality, Obscenity, Community: Women, Muslims, and the Hindu Public in Colonial India, the historian, Charu Gupta, explains how inter-caste love has historically been criminalised and violently suppressed, with upper-caste women in such relationships portrayed as victims of ‘pollution’. Khap panchayats and honour killings continue this legacy. In Shakti Vahini versus Union of India, the Supreme Court ruled honour killings to be unconstitutional. But justice remains elusive due to the involvement of families and community leaders in such crimes.
Even inter-caste marriages are not free of the complexities that arise out of casteist socialisation. The Dalit scholar, Suraj Yengde, emphasises in Caste Matters that in India, people are often socially conditioned to internalise caste and gender biases. Consequently, caste privilege frequently extends into inter-caste relationships, making love inherently unequal. Even within radical or progressive spaces, caste hierarchies continue to persist, subtly shaping personal relationships and reinforcing caste and gender dominance. Women, particularly Dalit women, find themselves at the intersection of caste and gender oppression. The control over their sexuality and agency is central to caste preservation, making them the primary targets of violence when they enter into an inter-caste relationship. Dalit women in relationships with upper-caste men face intense scrutiny and violence. Historically, Dalit women were often exploited by upper-caste men while being denied dignity in love and marriage. Sharmila Rege’s Against the Madness of Manu: B.R Ambedkar’s Writings on Brahmanical Patriarchy highlights how legal systems have long prioritised upper-caste purity over Dalit women’s rights. Such relationships often demand that Dalit women assimilate themselves into upper-caste norms, thereby erasing their identities. Families disown them, communities ostracise them, and the upper-caste partner’s family frequently rejects the union.
In her memoir, I Want to Destroy Myself, Malika Amar Shaikh, mentioned the domestic violence perpetrated by her poet-activist-husband, Namdev Dhasal. In The Problem of Caste, Satish Deshpande explains that caste is not only an external imposition but also an internalised reality. Marrying across Dalit sub-castes can lead to social rejection within one’s own community. This reveals how caste-based prejudices persist even among historically oppressed groups, complicating the idea that all inter-caste unions are emancipatory. Dalit feminism views love as a site of resistance. Meena Kandasamy, in Touch and When I Hit You, explores how love in a caste society can either be liberating or another form of subjugation. Similarly, the films by Pa. Ranjith also depict inter-caste love as a political struggle against systemic oppression.
Inter-caste love and marriage have the potential to challenge caste but their success depends on broader social and legal transformations that ensure equality. Ambedkar saw inter-caste marriage as a means of caste annihilation. But the realities of caste society reveal deeper complexities. The struggle against caste is not only legal and political but also a battle for love, dignity, and emotional justice. Until love is truly free from caste constraints, the dream of caste annihilation would remain incomplete.
Aashika Shivangi Singh is an independent writer